As part of my internship at Museum of the Bible’s digitization lab, I’ve had the privilege of working with extraordinary manuscripts that bridge the gap between ancient cultures and modern technology. One particularly fascinating project has been the Khabouris Codex, a remarkable artifact with deep historical, theological, and linguistic significance. This manuscript is the earliest known complete copy of the Peshitta New Testament. First emerging between the second and fourth centuries AD, the Peshitta (meaning “simple” or “common” in Syriac) is the standard version of the Bible for many Syriac-speaking Christian communities. It contains translations of the Old and the New Testament. The Peshitta New Testament, used by some Eastern Christian traditions, is notable for its canon, which includes 22 books rather than the 27 found in the Western New Testament. This canon excludes 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude, and Revelation, reflecting early Syriac Christianity’s unique theological and textual traditions. Written in Syriac, a dialect of Aramaic, the Peshitta is revered for its linguistic beauty and theological depth, offering a window into the early Christian world. According to its colophon, the Khabouris Codex was copied from an early manuscript of the Peshitta. This heritage makes the Khabouris Codex a critical witness to early Christian scripture and one of the most important surviving Syriac manuscripts.
One of the manuscript’s most visually striking features is the exquisite use of the Estrangela script, the earliest Syriac book-hand (fig. 1).
Figure 1: The Khabouris Codex, Luke 8:55–9:12. Image © Museum of the Bible, 2024. All rights reserved.
The text is scribed with remarkable precision throughout the codex, showcasing the skill and devotion of its scribes. Estrangela, known for its rounded, geometric forms, is regarded as the foundation of Syriac script traditions and continues to be used in modern scholarly editions of Syriac texts. Interestingly, six pages (three pairs) of the Gospel of Matthew are written in East Syriac script instead of Estrangela (fig. 2).
Figure 2: The Khabouris Codex, Matthew 17:5–19. Image © Museum of the Bible, 2024. All rights reserved.
This divergence provides a rare opportunity to observe the transition between Syriac script traditions, reflecting the cultural and ecclesiastical diversity of the Syriac-speaking world.
The Peshitta’s linguistic choices also offer theological insights into how Eastern Christian tradition interprets scripture. One fascinating example is found in Matthew 14:26, where Jesus walks on water and the disciples cry out in fear at seeing him. The Greek text uses the word φάντασμα (phantasma), which English translations often render as “ghost” or “spirit,” to describe what the disciples think they’re seeing. This term connotes a spiritual or supernatural apparition, an idea rooted in Greco-Roman concepts of the spirit world.
However, the Syriac Peshitta offers a distinct interpretation:
Figure 3: The Khabouris Codex, Matthew 14:26. Image © Museum of the Bible, 2024. All rights reserved.
ܘܚܙܐܘܗܝ ܬܠܡܝܕܘܗܝ ܕܡܗܠܟ ܥܠ ܡܝܐ ܘܐܬܬܙܝܥܘ ܘܐܡܪܝܢܗܘܘ ܕܚܙܘܐ ܗܘ ܕܓܠܐ ܘܡܢ ܕܚܠܬܗܘܢ ܩܥܘ
Translated: And his disciples saw him as he walked upon the water, and they were troubled (shaken); and they were saying: “The vision (sight) is a lie,” and they cried out from fear.
Here, instead of translating phantasma directly into an equivalent term for “ghost,” the Peshitta describes the sight as ܚܙܘܐ ܕܓܠܐ (ḥezwā daggālā), a “false vision” or a “lying vision.” This choice reflects the Syriac-speaking community’s cultural and theological context. The reason why the Syriac word for “spirit” is not used here is probably because it is cognate to “wind.” Since the passage already mentions wind disturbing the sea, the Syriac tradition avoids conflating terms, framing the disciples’ fear as stemming from the unreality of what they saw, rather than as a direct encounter with a possible spirit/ghost.
This interpretation contrasts with earlier Syriac traditions like the Old Syriac Curetonian Gospels or the Sinaitic Palimpsest, which translate phantasma as ܫܐܕܐ (šēḏā). This word likely originates from the Akkadian šēdu, which referred to the vital force of an individual personified as a spiritual being, both protective and malevolent. Over time, under monotheistic influence, šēḏā came to carry negative connotations, akin to demons or genies. The shift from šēḏā to “false vision” in the Peshitta reflects theological refinement, focusing on the unreality of the apparition rather than its nature as an actual being.
This example highlights how the Syriac tradition adapts scripture to resonate with its audience while remaining faithful to the core narrative. It also demonstrates the nuanced theological conversations embedded in scriptural translation as scribes navigated cultural and linguistic complexities to articulate divine truths.
Working with the Khabouris Codex has been an enriching experience, offering a deeper understanding of Syriac Christian heritage and the profound interplay between language, culture, and theology in shaping scripture. Through this work, we honor the scribes who crafted this manuscript and continue their legacy of bringing sacred texts to life.
Capturing the Collections is a series of articles from our specialists working in the Digital Imaging Lab featuring a look at some of the objects they are digitally preserving.
By Yucheng Guan, Digitization Intern
